Bir-Hadad Stele (=Melqart Stele; ca. 850-775 BCE; AB B.1.1 = KAI 201)

The paleography suggests a ninth century date of the inscription. The main interpretive crux revolves around the identity of Bir-Hadad’s father in the second half of line two.[1] Albright read Bir-Hadad, son of Ṭāb-Rammān, son of Ḥazyān (see 1 Kgs 15:18). Similarly, Lemaire read Bir-Hadad son of Ḥezion/Ḥazyān, son of [Hazael]. Cross read Bir-Hadad, son of ˁEzer (cf. Hadadˁezer king of Damascus). Lipiński suggested Ezer-Šamaš and Shea that of Ezer of Damascus. Similarly, Bordreuil and Teixidor reconstructed just Ezra. Pitard 1998 challenged the assumption that Bir-Hadad was a Damascene ruler; he suggested reading ˁAttar-hamek and connecting Bir-Hadad with Northern Syria. In the wake of Pitard, Puech read ˁAttar-sumkī, known from Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, followed by <BR.HDRM> “Bir-Hadrame.” Most recently, Hackett and Wilson-Wright have argued for <BRGŠ> “Bir-Gūš” after ˁAttar-sumkī in the end of line 2.

According to the most recent reconstruction (Hackett and Wilson-Wright 2022), the historical context of the inscription was as follows: Gūš was the founder of a dynasty from the tribe of Yaḫan beginning in the early ninth cent. BCE. The eponymous founder was succeeded by his son Hadrame (ruled from Arnē) then grandson ˁAttar-sumkī (ruled from Arpad). ˁAttar-sumkī’s son and successor, according to the Melqart Stele, was Bir-Hadad, though not one of the Ben-Hadads of the Damascus line. The Sefire and Zakkur inscriptions are useful in providing further information about the later generations of the Arpad dynasty. Chronologically, the authors assign the reign of Bir-Hadad, and thus the production of the Melqart Stele, to 790-760 BCE.

[1] For a brief overview, see Hackett and Wilson-Wright 2022, p. 106.